TABLE OF CONTENTS: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ix
SYMBOLS xi
CHAPTER ONE Flight and the Pterygote Insecta 3
1.1 Insect Diversity 5
1.2 Basic Aerodynamics 15
1.3 Why Study Flight Biomechanics? 29
1.4 Summary 34
CHAPTER TWO Morphology of the Flight Apparatus 36
2.1 Thoracic Design 36
2.2 Wings 52
2.3 Ancillary Structures 72
2.4 Summary 74
CHAPTER THREE Kinematics and Aerodynamics of Flight 75
3.1 Wing and Body Motions 75
3.2 Aerodynamics 105
3.3 Mechanical Power Requirements 144
3.4 Summary 157
CHAPTER FOUR Energetics and Flight Physiology 159
4.1 Oxygen Consumption 159
4.2 Muscle Physiology 172
4.3 Thermoregulation in Flight 196
4.4 Summary 157
CHAPTER FIVE Stability, Maneuverability, and Maximum Flight Performance 203
5.1 Stability 203
5.2 Maneuverability 222
5.3 Three-Dimensional Flight Behavior 233
5.4 Limits to Insect Flight Performance 242
5.5 Summary 259
CHAPTER SIX Evolution of Flight and Flightlessness 261
6.1 Origin of Flight in Hexapods 261
6.2 Evolutionary Consequences of Flight and Flightlessness 291
6.3 Summary 300
CHAPTER SEVEN Flight and Insect Diversification 302
7.1 Miniaturization 302
7.2 Pollination 309
7.3 Predation 313
7.4 Long-Range Dispersal and Migration 322
7.5 Comparison of Insect and Vertebrate Flight 331
7.6 Summary 336
CHAPTER EIGHT Future Directions in Insect Flight Biomechanics 338
8.1 Aerodynamic Mechanisms 338
8.2 Insect Flight Biomechanics in Nature 341
8.3 Exploring Insect Diversity 347
GLOSSARY 353
REFERENCES 361
INDEX 465
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